calinet

known for their service on the western frontier, buffalo soldiers were segregated regiments of african american soldiers in the u.s. army. historians disagree on the origin of their nickname, with some suggesting it was given by native americans who compared their hair to that of buffaloes, while others suggest it reflected their fierce fighting skills. several generations of buffalo soldiers fought bravely for the united states across nearly 200 engagements from 1866 to 1951. they were the only african american soldiers to fight in cuba during the spanish american war, earning five medals of honor among them. image

people refer to the 1830s as the period of "jacksonian democracy," but these terms refer more to the spirit of reform that swept jackson into office than to any democratic reforms that he created, jackson's own ideas of democracy were limited. he was, for example, a slave owner, and he designed the indian removal policy. the american people embraced him in large part because he was a self-made man who, like many of them, had settled in the frontier west.

the roman empire was essentially the world’s first luxury superpower, a civilization that conquered continents, siphoned wealth from every corner of its reach, and then spent centuries arguing with itself about whether silk, purple, pearls, and fancy dinners were ruining its soul. it was a place where armies marched in iron discipline, but senators still passed laws about how many oysters someone could eat at a party. in other words: a giant engine of power constantly wrestling with its own taste for glitter.

one of the most interesting aspects of the roman empire was its laws regulating luxury consumption. these sumptuary laws, which began in the republic and continued into the imperial era, were meant to protect public morality, maintain class order, and prevent economic excess. as rome’s military conquests brought in massive wealth such as gold, silver, silk, pearls, spices, and exotic goods, the elite began living in extreme luxury. these laws attempted to restrain that growing extravagance. ironically, they were often ignored, especially by the upper classes and sometimes even by emperors themselves. some of the most notable examples:

lex oppia

one of the earliest and most controversial of these laws was lex oppia, passed in 215 bce during the harsh years of the second punic war. with the treasury nearly empty, the law limited women to no more than half an ounce of gold, banned brightly colored clothing (especially purple dye), and forbade women from riding in carriages within the city. the goal was to encourage frugality and direct resources toward the war effort. luxury was seen as encouraging greed, which in turn fueled corruption. when the war ended and carthage’s wealth began flowing into rome, women grew increasingly frustrated. in 195 bce, they organized large street protests demanding the law be repealed, and they succeeded.

lex orchia

some roman senators tried to win elections by hosting extravagant public banquets or directly bribing voters with wine, oil, or money. this practice was called ambitus. to combat it, the lex orchia law (182 bce) limited the number of people who could be invited to such feasts.

lex fannia

however, romans quickly found loopholes. since lex orchia restricted the number of guests, wealthy hosts simply claimed everyone present was a family member. so in 161 bce, lex fannia shifted the restriction from the number of guests to the cost of the banquet. spending limits were set at 10 asses on ordinary days, 30 asses on holidays, and 100 asses for weddings. luxury foods like oysters, imported fish, and delicacies like songbird tongues were banned. this law applied only within the city of rome.

lex didia

wealthy romans then began hosting extravagant feasts outside of rome in places like pompeii and capua. so in 143 bce, lex didia extended the limits of lex fannia to all of italy. it also rewarded informants. a slave could report a luxury violation seen at market, and authorities would confiscate part of the owner’s property. this was the beginning of a formal informant culture.

lex aemilia sumptuaria

by 115 bce, demand for luxury goods had grown so much that prices rose dramatically. lex aemilia imposed import restrictions on sweets, incense, and foreign wine, and set maximum legal prices for many goods. even asparagus was given a government approved price limit. purple dye and silk were the most restricted luxury items. tyrian purple was made from thousands of sea snails and cost more than gold. only the emperor could wear a fully purple garment. senators were limited to clothing with a narrow purple stripe. during tiberius’s rule, silk clothing for men was banned entirely as both morally corrupting and economically harmful because it drained rome’s gold reserves through trade with china.

lex julia sumptuaria

in 46 bce, julius caesar introduced lex julia, which banned extravagant furniture, pearls, and expensive perfume. ironically, while enforcing these laws in rome, caesar was said to have received a pearl worth around six million sesterces from cleopatra. at that time, a roman soldier earned about one sesterce per day. even lawmakers did not follow their own laws.

later developments

in the 1st century ce, emperors augustus and tiberius continued restrictions on silk and purple luxury items. nearly two centuries later, as rome’s economy continued to weaken, emperor diocletian issued the edict on maximum prices in 301 ce, attempting to set price caps on nearly every good and service in the empire. it also failed, and soon after, rome entered a long period of decline and fragmentation.

in short, in ancient rome the color purple caused endless political and economic problems. purple was not just a color. it was a symbol of power.

a country where almost one in ten people relies on food assistance.

right now, benefits from the snap program (supplemental nutrition assistance program), which helps about 42 million americans buy basic groceries, are at risk because of the government shutdown.

there’s a real possibility this could turn into the worst hunger crisis since the great depression.

according to the president and the gop, who seem more eager to bail out struggling corporations like boeing than to feed struggling families, these benefits don’t always go to the “right” people. in their view, if you need help, it must be your fault.

let's clear up a common misunderstanding: is it "ethics" or "morality"? what's the real difference between the two? a straightforward answer: technically, there isn't one. you can use them interchangeably without being wrong.

the word morality comes from the latin term for "customs," while ethics comes from the greek word with the same meaning. in that sense, they're essentially synonyms, the only difference lies in their linguistic roots.

but over time, some philosophers have assigned different meanings to the two. for example, kant viewed morality as a system of virtuous principles, while ethics referred to the practical application of those principles. other philosophers have argued that morality concerns our duties toward others, while ethics is more about personal wisdom and the path to inner fulfillment.

why not? there's no rule against giving these words distinct meanings but there's also no requirement to do so. the overlap is natural, and most of the time, using one or the other comes down to context and personal preference.

a country in north america known for its rich cultural heritage, vibrant traditions, and diverse landscapes ranging from beaches to mountains. mexico is famous for its ancient civilizations, including the maya and aztecs, and its influence on global cuisine, art, and music.

capital: mexico city (ciudad de mexico)

population: approximately 129 million people (2024 estimate).
cuisine: tacos, tamales, mole, and tequila have become global culinary staples.
festivals: dia de los muertos (day of the dead) is a vibrant celebration honoring ancestors with colorful altars and traditions.
art: iconic figures like frida kahlo and diego rivera have left a lasting impact on the art world.

an american competitive swimmer widely regarded as one of the greatest female swimmers of all time. known for her dominance in long-distance freestyle events, ledecky has broken multiple world records and won numerous olympic and world championship titles.

born: march 17, 1997, washington, d.c., usa

career highlights:
– 7 olympic gold medals and 19 world championship titles, making her one of the most decorated female swimmers in history.
– holds the world record in the 800m and 1500m freestyle, showcasing her unparalleled endurance and speed.
– first woman to win four consecutive world titles in the same event (800m freestyle).
– ledecky swam her first olympic race at the age of 15 in the 2012 london games and shocked the world by winning gold in the 800m freestyle.

wardenclyffe tower, also known as the tesla tower, was a wireless transmission station designed and built by the inventor nikola tesla. the tower was intended to transmit wireless energy and communication signals, but the project was never completed due to financial difficulties. it is located in shoreham, new york, and is one of the few remaining examples of tesla's work. the tower was declared a national historic landmark in 1989.

communism is a political and economic ideology that is based on the idea of creating a classless society in which all property and wealth are communally owned and controlled. the ultimate goal of communism is to create a system in which all individuals are equal and have access to the resources they need to live a fulfilling life. in a communist society, the state plays a central role in the economy and is responsible for distributing resources and planning production in order to meet the needs of the people. this is in contrast to a capitalist system, in which the economy is based on the private ownership of the means of production and the creation of profit.

a formative novel about a protagonist's psychological and moral growth from their youth into adulthood.

how do ants know when another ant is dead?

when ed wilson was a young assistant professor at harvard in the 1950s, he observed that when ants die — and if they're not crushed and torn apart — they just lie there, sometimes upside down, feet in the air, while their sister ants (almost all ants in a colony are ladies) walk right by without a glance. that is until about two days after an ant's passing, ed discovered, when the corpse appears to emit a chemical signal that changes the living ants' behavior dramatically.

all of a sudden what was once a pile of gunk on the colony floor becomes a "problem to be solved." once the signal is in the air, any ant that happens by grabs the corpse and carries it through the colony to a refuse pile designated the graveyard and dumps it on a mound of also-dead ants.

ed, who would revolutionize the study of ants by exploring their ability to communicate with smell, decided to figure out what chemicals equal "i am dead" to an ant.

in his autobiography, naturalist, he wrote: "i thought, maybe with the right chemicals i could create an artificial corpse."

finally, after much sifting and mixing, ed discovered that oleic acid — just a teeny drop of it — was all the ants had to sniff to think "dead!" and, because he could — ed had a colony parked in his harvard lab so he could watch them endlessly — one day he took a drop of the chemical and gently deposited it on an ant that had the misfortune of walking by.

ed describes how as soon as he dabbed the ant, the next ant that came near grabbed his ant, slung it on its back, hiked over to the graveyard and though the ant was very much alive — "kicking, you know," says ed — flung it onto the refuse pile.

dead is what you smell — not what you see — if you are an ant. so, though it tried to clean itself over and over, the minute it returned to the colony, it was grabbed, carried and slung back on the pile.

the act of caressing or tenderly running fingers through a loved one's hair.

a person who has suddenly risen to a higher economic status but has not gained social acceptance of others in that class.

a gorgeous and brave model who has been jeopardizing her career by supporting palestine against israel.

a society that erects taboos against a discussion of historical events and institutes related prohibitions cannot have a democratic future.