calinet

the roman empire was essentially the world’s first luxury superpower, a civilization that conquered continents, siphoned wealth from every corner of its reach, and then spent centuries arguing with itself about whether silk, purple, pearls, and fancy dinners were ruining its soul. it was a place where armies marched in iron discipline, but senators still passed laws about how many oysters someone could eat at a party. in other words: a giant engine of power constantly wrestling with its own taste for glitter.

one of the most interesting aspects of the roman empire was its laws regulating luxury consumption. these sumptuary laws, which began in the republic and continued into the imperial era, were meant to protect public morality, maintain class order, and prevent economic excess. as rome’s military conquests brought in massive wealth such as gold, silver, silk, pearls, spices, and exotic goods, the elite began living in extreme luxury. these laws attempted to restrain that growing extravagance. ironically, they were often ignored, especially by the upper classes and sometimes even by emperors themselves. some of the most notable examples:

lex oppia

one of the earliest and most controversial of these laws was lex oppia, passed in 215 bce during the harsh years of the second punic war. with the treasury nearly empty, the law limited women to no more than half an ounce of gold, banned brightly colored clothing (especially purple dye), and forbade women from riding in carriages within the city. the goal was to encourage frugality and direct resources toward the war effort. luxury was seen as encouraging greed, which in turn fueled corruption. when the war ended and carthage’s wealth began flowing into rome, women grew increasingly frustrated. in 195 bce, they organized large street protests demanding the law be repealed, and they succeeded.

lex orchia

some roman senators tried to win elections by hosting extravagant public banquets or directly bribing voters with wine, oil, or money. this practice was called ambitus. to combat it, the lex orchia law (182 bce) limited the number of people who could be invited to such feasts.

lex fannia

however, romans quickly found loopholes. since lex orchia restricted the number of guests, wealthy hosts simply claimed everyone present was a family member. so in 161 bce, lex fannia shifted the restriction from the number of guests to the cost of the banquet. spending limits were set at 10 asses on ordinary days, 30 asses on holidays, and 100 asses for weddings. luxury foods like oysters, imported fish, and delicacies like songbird tongues were banned. this law applied only within the city of rome.

lex didia

wealthy romans then began hosting extravagant feasts outside of rome in places like pompeii and capua. so in 143 bce, lex didia extended the limits of lex fannia to all of italy. it also rewarded informants. a slave could report a luxury violation seen at market, and authorities would confiscate part of the owner’s property. this was the beginning of a formal informant culture.

lex aemilia sumptuaria

by 115 bce, demand for luxury goods had grown so much that prices rose dramatically. lex aemilia imposed import restrictions on sweets, incense, and foreign wine, and set maximum legal prices for many goods. even asparagus was given a government approved price limit. purple dye and silk were the most restricted luxury items. tyrian purple was made from thousands of sea snails and cost more than gold. only the emperor could wear a fully purple garment. senators were limited to clothing with a narrow purple stripe. during tiberius’s rule, silk clothing for men was banned entirely as both morally corrupting and economically harmful because it drained rome’s gold reserves through trade with china.

lex julia sumptuaria

in 46 bce, julius caesar introduced lex julia, which banned extravagant furniture, pearls, and expensive perfume. ironically, while enforcing these laws in rome, caesar was said to have received a pearl worth around six million sesterces from cleopatra. at that time, a roman soldier earned about one sesterce per day. even lawmakers did not follow their own laws.

later developments

in the 1st century ce, emperors augustus and tiberius continued restrictions on silk and purple luxury items. nearly two centuries later, as rome’s economy continued to weaken, emperor diocletian issued the edict on maximum prices in 301 ce, attempting to set price caps on nearly every good and service in the empire. it also failed, and soon after, rome entered a long period of decline and fragmentation.

in short, in ancient rome the color purple caused endless political and economic problems. purple was not just a color. it was a symbol of power.

a country where almost one in ten people relies on food assistance.

right now, benefits from the snap program (supplemental nutrition assistance program), which helps about 42 million americans buy basic groceries, are at risk because of the government shutdown.

there’s a real possibility this could turn into the worst hunger crisis since the great depression.

according to the president and the gop, who seem more eager to bail out struggling corporations like boeing than to feed struggling families, these benefits don’t always go to the “right” people. in their view, if you need help, it must be your fault.

for your information.

fear of missing out. today's modern anxiety disorder.

let's clear up a common misunderstanding: is it "ethics" or "morality"? what's the real difference between the two? a straightforward answer: technically, there isn't one. you can use them interchangeably without being wrong.

the word morality comes from the latin term for "customs," while ethics comes from the greek word with the same meaning. in that sense, they're essentially synonyms, the only difference lies in their linguistic roots.

but over time, some philosophers have assigned different meanings to the two. for example, kant viewed morality as a system of virtuous principles, while ethics referred to the practical application of those principles. other philosophers have argued that morality concerns our duties toward others, while ethics is more about personal wisdom and the path to inner fulfillment.

why not? there's no rule against giving these words distinct meanings but there's also no requirement to do so. the overlap is natural, and most of the time, using one or the other comes down to context and personal preference.

in february 1945, the "big three" allied leaders — roosevelt, churchill, and stalin — met at yalta on the black sea. there they agreed that, when the war in europe was over, germany would be divided into four occupation zones, to be controlled by american, british, french, and soviet forces. they also made plans for a united nations organization, as a successor to the failed league of nations, this time with the united states as a founding member. stalin was promised pieces of japan's empire in exchange for soviet help against japan after germany's surrender. unlike the treaty of versailles, which punished germany harshly after world war 1, this agreement emphasized rebuilding postwar europe.

a country in north america known for its rich cultural heritage, vibrant traditions, and diverse landscapes ranging from beaches to mountains. mexico is famous for its ancient civilizations, including the maya and aztecs, and its influence on global cuisine, art, and music.

capital: mexico city (ciudad de mexico)

population: approximately 129 million people (2024 estimate).
cuisine: tacos, tamales, mole, and tequila have become global culinary staples.
festivals: dia de los muertos (day of the dead) is a vibrant celebration honoring ancestors with colorful altars and traditions.
art: iconic figures like frida kahlo and diego rivera have left a lasting impact on the art world.

an american competitive swimmer widely regarded as one of the greatest female swimmers of all time. known for her dominance in long-distance freestyle events, ledecky has broken multiple world records and won numerous olympic and world championship titles.

born: march 17, 1997, washington, d.c., usa

career highlights:
– 7 olympic gold medals and 19 world championship titles, making her one of the most decorated female swimmers in history.
– holds the world record in the 800m and 1500m freestyle, showcasing her unparalleled endurance and speed.
– first woman to win four consecutive world titles in the same event (800m freestyle).
– ledecky swam her first olympic race at the age of 15 in the 2012 london games and shocked the world by winning gold in the 800m freestyle.

lenin was the central figure in transforming russia from a royal autocracy into a socialist state. he became a leading spokesman of social democracy in the russian capital, and in 1895 he was imprisoned. exile in siberia followed, and in 1900 lenin moved abroad. convinced of the need for a revolutionary voice, he founded the newspaper iskra in 1900. in his early writings, he argued that workers were incapable, on their own, of seeing beyond bread-and-butter issues; they needed a tightly organized revolutionary party to act on their behalf.

in 1903, the russian social democrats split over these issues, with lenin carrying the majority with him. in 1904, he returned briefly to saint petersburg to help organize the revolution.

by the time of the october revolution, lenin was the undisputed leader of the radical socialist movement. his concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat was ruthlessly imposed during the civil war. in 1921, he introduced the new economic policy to reverse the push toward a fully communist economy. he died in 1924, too soon to witness the full consequences of proletarian dictatorship.

henry ford, the american automobile manufacturer, was a well-known figure in the early 20th century and played a significant role in the development of the assembly line, which revolutionized the automobile industry and had a significant impact on the economy and society of the time.

ford's views on a variety of social and political issues, including his anti-semitism, were also well-known. ford was a vocal and prominent critic of jews and jewish influence in the united states, and he supported and funded anti-semitic organizations and publications.

one way in which ford supported the nazi party in germany was by funding and promoting anti-semitic publications and organizations. in the 1920s, ford owned and funded a newspaper called the dearborn independent, which published a series of articles known as the "international jew" that were critical of jews and accused them of attempting to control the world through their alleged control of the media, finance, and other areas of society. these articles were later compiled into a book that was widely distributed in the united states and around the world.

the nazi party in germany, which came to power in 1933 under the leadership of adolf hitler, also espoused anti-semitic beliefs and policies. the nazis used ford's writings and ideas as justification for their own anti-semitic views and actions, and hitler personally admired and praised ford. in 1938, the nazi government awarded ford the grand cross of the german eagle, the highest award that could be given to a foreigner, in recognition of his contributions to the nazi cause.

overall, the relationship between the nazis and henry ford was one of admiration and support, with the nazis drawing inspiration and justification from ford's anti-semitic views and actions.

in 1902, a coal miners' strike threatened the nation's supply of heating fuel. roosevelt invited the mine owners and union officials to the white house, but the owners refused to negotiate. furious, the president got them to back down, and the strike was settled, with the miners receiving a pay raise and a nine-hour work day, down from 12 hours.

in his bid for reelection in 1904, roosevelt said that in brokering the settlement he had tried for a "square deal"—a fair result-for both sides. the square deal became his motto for the rest of his career. roosevelt won a landslide election to become president in his own right in 1904.

became a cruel sport after the railroad system was established. the great herds were seen as hindrances to the settling of western lands. then, in 1871, a process was developed for tanning buffalo hides. tanning companies sent teams of hunters to kill the animals for the hides, leaving the meat to rot and threatening the survival of the plains indians, who relied on the herds for their livelihood.

can a lie become a truth?

i don't want to be right, i want to be happy!

an adaptation of an african lyre, was a common instrument in slave quarters. singing songs reinforced slaves sense of community and tied their lives in america to their ancestors' in africa.