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operation overlord required incredibly detailed planning, as well as perfect coordination and timing. the final decisions were made by american general dwight d. eisenhower, nicknamed "ike." he was the supreme commander of the allied expeditionary force (aef). weather was ike's biggest headache. there were only a few days each month when the tides were right for the invasion, and, as june approached, storms howled out of the north sea and into the english channel.

secrecy was also vital. hitler's forces had built a wall of concrete bunkers and gun emplacements along the french coast, and had lain tank traps, mines, and miles of barbed wire. through a variety of deceptions, the allies convinced hitler that the landing target was not normandy, but farther north where the channel narrowed.

in 1936, the olympic summer games were held in germany, and adolf hitler wanted it to be a great showcase of german-or aryan-racial superiority. but jesse owens, an african american track and field star, stole the show, setting records and winning four gold medals.

the kkk, which had terrorized southern blacks after the civil war, was reestablished in georgia in 1915. the new klan claimed it was protecting america's "pioneer heritage" from not only blacks but also radicals, foreigners, jews, and catholics. membership soared following a series of antiblack riots in 1919, when white mobs rampaged through black neighborhoods in chicago and washington, d.c., killing at least 100 african americans.

money poured into the ku klux klan treasury, and its membership swelled to more than four million. for a few years the klan was a political force in small towns in the south, midwest, and southwest, helping elect senators and governors in several states. by 1925, economic prosperity and full employment reduced fear of radicals, and the popularity of the klan went into a steep decline. by 1930, membership had dropped below 10,000.

a nation devoid of art and artists cannot have a full existence.

robert m. la follette was the most famous progressive in state government. he fought to overcome the all-powerful political party machines in wisconsin before being elected governor in 1900. his nickname was "battling bob." la follette's goal was to give the people more control over government. wisconsin became one of the first states to use a direct primary, where voters rather than political parties choose candidates to run for office. "battling bob" also passed a law requiring that civil-service workers take exams to qualify for jobs. that way, party bosses couldn't hire their friends in exchange for political favors.

to reduce the power of utility companies, la follette established commissions to watch the cost and the quality of service. professors from the university of wisconsin served on the commissions, and he worked with the university's president to make sure powerful lumber companies did not overuse the state's forests. la follette's reforms became known as the wisconsin idea.

known for their service on the western frontier, buffalo soldiers were segregated regiments of african american soldiers in the u.s. army. historians disagree on the origin of their nickname, with some suggesting it was given by native americans who compared their hair to that of buffaloes, while others suggest it reflected their fierce fighting skills. several generations of buffalo soldiers fought bravely for the united states across nearly 200 engagements from 1866 to 1951. they were the only african american soldiers to fight in cuba during the spanish american war, earning five medals of honor among them. image

most polarizing us president.